Case

10.1 What Is Grammatical Case?

Grammatical case is a property of nouns, pronouns, and related words that indicates their function within a sentence. In languages with a rich case system — Latin, German, Russian, Finnish, for example — the endings of nouns and adjectives change depending on whether a word is the subject of a verb, the object of a verb, the object of a preposition, or a possessor. These different forms are called cases.

English was once a heavily inflected language with a full case system. Old English nouns changed form for four cases: nominative (subject), accusative (direct object), dative (indirect object), and genitive (possessive). Over the centuries, those distinctions collapsed. Modern English nouns no longer change form for most cases — the word dog means dog whether it is the subject or the object of a sentence. What determines its role is word order and prepositions, not endings.

However, case has not disappeared entirely from English. Three areas preserve it:

• Personal pronouns still change form according to their grammatical role (I / me / my / mine; he / him / his; they / them / their / theirs, and so on).
• Nouns retain a possessive case, formed by adding ‘s or an apostrophe alone.
• The relative and interrogative pronoun who retains a distinct object form: whom.

These surviving case distinctions are the source of some of the most persistent errors in English writing. This chapter examines them systematically.

10.2 The Three Cases of Modern English

Modern English grammar recognises three cases: the nominative case, the objective case, and the possessive case. Each corresponds to a distinct grammatical function.

For nouns, the nominative and objective forms are identical. Only the possessive is marked (with ‘s or ‘). For pronouns, however, all three cases are clearly distinct, and using the wrong form is a grammatical error.

10.3 The Nominative Case

10.3.1 Definition and Use

The nominative case (also called the subjective case) is used when a noun or pronoun functions as the subject of a clause. It is also used after linking verbs, where it appears as a predicate nominative — a word that renames or identifies the subject. For nouns, the nominative form is the plain, base form of the word. For pronouns, it is the subject form.

10.3.2 Nominative Pronouns

10.3.3 Nominative as Subject

The most common use of the nominative case is as the subject of a finite verb — the noun or pronoun that performs or experiences the action described by the verb.

• She drafted the initial proposal in less than a day.
• We were not informed about the change in schedule.
• He and I will represent the department at the conference.
• They have submitted the final report ahead of the deadline.
• Who authorised this expenditure?

When two pronouns are joined by and, both must be in the nominative if the pair functions as the subject. A useful test: read each pronoun separately to check whether it sounds correct.

10.3.4 Predicate Nominative (After Linking Verbs)

After a linking verb — primarily to be, but also become, seem, appear, remain — a pronoun that renames or identifies the subject takes the nominative case, not the objective case. This construction is called the predicate nominative or subject complement.

• Formal / grammatically precise: It was she who raised the concern.
• Informal / common in speech: It was her who raised the concern.
• Formal: The principal organiser was he.
• Informal: The principal organiser was him.

In formal writing — academic essays, official reports, legal documents — the nominative is expected after linking verbs. In everyday speech, the objective form is so common after it is / it was that it is widely accepted informally. Writers should know both forms and choose appropriately for their register.

10.4 The Objective Case

10.4.1 Definition and Use

The objective case (historically divided into accusative for direct objects and dative for indirect objects) is used when a noun or pronoun receives the action of a verb or follows a preposition. For nouns, the objective form is identical to the nominative. For pronouns, it is a distinct form.

10.4.2 Objective Pronouns

10.4.3 As Direct Object

The direct object receives the action of a transitive verb directly. It answers the question what? or whom? after the verb.

• The auditors interviewed her for over two hours.
• The committee has invited them to present their findings.
• The judge questioned him about the sequence of events.
• Please inform me the moment you receive a response.

10.4.4 As Indirect Object

The indirect object is the recipient of the direct object — the person or thing for whom or to whom something is done. It answers the question to whom? or for whom? and typically appears between the verb and the direct object.

• The panel awarded her the research grant. (her = indirect object; the research grant = direct object)
• The clerk sent us the updated contract. (us = indirect object; the updated contract = direct object)
• The firm offered him a partnership. (him = indirect object; a partnership = direct object)

10.4.5 As Object of a Preposition

A pronoun that follows a preposition must always be in the objective case. This rule is clear in principle but frequently violated in practice, especially when the preposition governs a compound (two pronouns joined by and).

Simple prepositional object:

• The report was addressed to her.
• Between you and me, the figures do not add up.
• The decision was made without him.

Compound prepositional object — a very common error site:

10.4.6 Whom — The Objective Form of Who

The pronoun who has a distinct objective form: whom. The rule is the same as for any other pronoun: use who when it is the subject of a verb; use whom when it is the object of a verb or follows a preposition.

10.5 The Possessive Case

The possessive case expresses a relationship between two nouns — typically ownership, origin, description, or association. English marks the possessive in two ways: with the ‘s construction (also called the Saxon genitive or clitic possessive) and with the of-phrase (also called the Norman genitive or periphrastic genitive). Both are grammatically correct; the choice between them depends on the type of noun and the level of formality.

10.5.1 Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns in English come in two types: dependent possessives (determiners that precede a noun) and independent possessives (which stand alone without a following noun).

10.5.2 Possessive Nouns — The ‘s Construction

For nouns, the possessive is formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter s (or sometimes just an apostrophe). The specific rule depends on whether the noun is singular or plural, and whether it already ends in s.

Singular Nouns — Add ‘s
Nearly all singular nouns — including those ending in s — form the possessive by adding ‘s.

Note: Some style guides allow adding only an apostrophe (without the second s) to singular nouns already ending in s, particularly in classical or religious names. Both forms are widely accepted.

• Socrates’ philosophy OR Socrates’s philosophy
• Moses’ laws OR Moses’s laws
• Jesus’ teachings OR Jesus’s teachings

Plural Nouns Ending in S — Add Apostrophe Only
Regular English plurals already end in s. To form the possessive, add only an apostrophe after the existing s.

Irregular Plural Nouns — Add ‘s
Nouns whose plural form does not end in s (irregular plurals) form the possessive by adding ‘s, just like singular nouns.

Compound Nouns and Joint Possession
When forming the possessive of a compound noun, the ‘s is added to the final element only.

• the editor-in-chief’s final decision
• my brother-in-law’s firm
• the Secretary of State’s announcement

When two people jointly possess something (joint possession), the ‘s is added to the last name only. When two people each possess something separately (separate possession), each name takes ‘s.

10.5.3 The ‘s vs. the Of-Phrase

Both the ‘s construction and the of-phrase express a possessive or descriptive relationship. The two are not always interchangeable. English has developed conventions about which form is preferred in particular contexts.

Neither form is absolutely “correct” for every case — context, rhythm, and convention all play a role. When in doubt, read both versions aloud and choose the one that sounds more natural for your audience.

10.6 Problematic Constructions in Case

Several grammatical contexts create persistent case errors even among careful writers. This section examines each problem area and provides clear guidance.

10.6.1 Case After Comparisons with Than and As

In comparisons using than or as, the pronoun’s case depends on its grammatical role in the understood (often omitted) clause that follows. The full clause makes the correct case clear.

• Sentence: She has more experience than I / me.
  Full clause (nominative): She has more experience than I [have]. (I is the subject of the understood verb have — use nominative.)
• Different sentence: The project interested her more than me.
  Full clause (objective): The project interested her more than [it interested] me. (me is the object of interested in the understood clause — use objective.)

10.6.2 Case in Apposition

A noun or pronoun in apposition renames another noun or pronoun. The appositive takes the same case as the noun or pronoun it renames.

• Nominative (subject + appositive): We, the members of the review panel, have reached a unanimous verdict.
• Objective (object + appositive): The announcement concerned us, the senior researchers, directly.

10.6.3 Case After Linking Verbs (Revisited)

As discussed in Section 10.3.4, a pronoun following a linking verb takes the nominative case in formal English. The most frequent context for error is the construction It is / It was + pronoun.

In practice, the formal nominative after linking verbs sounds unnatural in speech and informal writing. Reserve it for formal contexts where grammatical precision is expected.

10.6.4 Reflexive Pronouns — Not a Substitute for Nominative or Objective

Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves) are sometimes incorrectly used as substitutes for personal pronouns, often in an attempt to sound more formal or polite. This is always an error.

10.6.5 Case with Gerunds — The Possessive Before a Gerund

When a noun or pronoun immediately precedes a gerund (a verb form ending in -ing used as a noun), it should technically take the possessive case.

In formal academic or legal writing, the possessive before a gerund is preferred. In everyday writing and conversation, the objective form is widely accepted and rarely noticed.

10.7 Advanced Possessive Constructions

10.7.1 The Double Genitive (of + Possessive)

English has a construction in which both of and ‘s are used together to express possession. This is called the double genitive, double possessive, or post-genitive. It is entirely standard in English and not a redundancy.

• She is a former colleague of mine.
• He is an old friend of the director’s.
• That policy was a favourite suggestion of the committee’s.

10.7.2 Quasi-Possessives — Time, Measure, and Descriptive Relationships

10.7.3 Possessives with Appended Phrases

• I took my car to the garage, and Clara took hers. [hers = her car]
• The north wing was renovated last year; the south wing’s was done five years ago.
• The verdict was the court’s to deliver.

10.8 Case in Relative Clauses

Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses and must take a case form that matches their grammatical function within the relative clause — not their relationship to the main clause.

10.9 A Brief Historical Note on Case in English

Old English (spoken roughly from the 5th to the 12th century) was a heavily inflected language, much closer to German or Latin than to modern English. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and determiners all changed form according to four cases — nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive — and also according to grammatical gender.

Over the Middle English period (roughly 12th to 15th century), the case system for nouns collapsed almost entirely due to Scandinavian and Norman French influence, the levelling of unstressed vowel endings, and the increasing use of fixed word order. By Chaucer’s time, most noun case distinctions had disappeared.

Pronouns retained their case distinctions far longer and have preserved them to the present day. The genitive case of nouns survives as the modern possessive, with the Old English suffix -es reduced to ‘s.

10.10 Case in Formal and Informal English

10.11 Summary

Key Points from Chapter 10

1. Grammatical case indicates the function of a noun or pronoun within a sentence. Modern English preserves three cases: nominative, objective, and possessive.
2. Nouns do not change form between nominative and objective; only the possessive is marked (with ‘s or ‘). Pronouns have distinct forms for all three cases.
3. Nominative case: used for subjects and predicate nominatives (after linking verbs). Pronouns: I, we, he, she, they, who.
4. Objective case: used for direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions. Pronouns: me, us, him, her, them, whom.
5. Possessive case: marks ownership, origin, or association. Nouns: add ‘s (singular) or ‘ (plural ending in s) or ‘s (irregular plural). Pronouns: my/mine, your/yours, his, her/hers, its, our/ours, their/theirs — never with apostrophes.
6. Its = possessive pronoun (no apostrophe). It’s = contraction of it is or it has.
7. Reflexive pronouns (myself, himself, etc.) are not substitutes for personal pronouns. Use them only for reflexive or emphatic functions.
8. In comparisons (than, as) and in apposition, the case of the pronoun is determined by its grammatical role in the full (sometimes implied) clause.
9. Who/whom: who = subject; whom = object. Apply the he/him test to decide.
10. The possessive before a gerund is formally preferred (his submitting, their leaving); the objective is widely accepted informally.

10.12 Practice Exercises

Exercise A — Identifying Case

1. She submitted the final version three days before the deadline.
2. The panel awarded him the highest distinction.
3. The recommendation came directly from her.
4. Their proposal was unanimously approved.
5. The board thanked both the research team and us for the contribution.
6. The architect’s original drawings are stored in the archive.
7. Who signed the document on behalf of the organisation?
8. The last person to be interviewed was he.

Exercise B — Choosing the Correct Pronoun Form

1. The investigation was led by the director and (she / her).
2. Between you and (I / me), the figures in the report do not reconcile.
3. It was (they / them) who first discovered the discrepancy.
4. The contract was awarded to the firm with (who / whom) we had previously worked.
5. No one was more surprised than (I / me) when the verdict was announced.
6. The chair introduced (we / us) researchers to the visiting delegation.
7. The person (who / whom) you recommended has been shortlisted.
8. Please send all enquiries to either the coordinator or (I / me).
9. She knows the protocol better than (he / him).
10. The final decision rests with (whoever / whomever) chairs the meeting.

Exercise C — Possessive Case in Nouns

1. the briefcase belonging to the manager
2. the findings of the researchers (plural)
3. the ruling of the court
4. the rights belonging to the children
5. the work of James (singular proper noun)
6. the recommendations of the three committees
7. the policies of the government
8. the discovery made by Charles (singular)

Exercise D — Correcting Case Errors

1. The award was presented to both Sarah and I at the closing ceremony.
2. Who did the committee appoint to lead the working group?
3. Please direct your complaints to the supervisor or myself.
4. Its been decided that the inspection will take place next Thursday.
5. The final report was submitted by Oliver and myself on the agreed date.
6. Us members of the faculty strongly oppose the proposed restructuring.
7. She is a far more experienced negotiator than him.
8. The decision was our’s to make, and we made it carefully.
9. Him and the rest of the team will attend the briefing at noon.
10. The panel questioned whoever had been closest to the incident.

Exercise E — Who or Whom?

1. ________ prepared the environmental impact assessment?
2. The consultant ________ the firm hired had thirty years of experience.
3. To ________ should the application be addressed?
4. ________ did you say called this morning?
5. The witness ________ we had expected to testify withdrew at the last moment.
6. ________ among the board members voted against the resolution?
7. She is the delegate ________ I believe drafted the original motion.
8. ________ the committee selects will face significant scrutiny.

Exercise F — Possessive Pronouns and Apostrophes

1. The firm submitted it’s annual accounts ahead of the deadline.
2. The decision was theirs to make, and they made it promptly.
3. Every member of the team played their part in the project’s success.
4. The data set and it’s associated metadata are stored on the server.
5. Is this report your’s or the department’s copy?
6. The joint findings were Oliver’s and Clara’s to present.
7. There’s no question that the outcome was our’s to determine.
8. The policy has its limitations, but its goals are sound.

✅ Answer Key

Exercise A — Answers

Exercise B — Answers

Exercise C — Answers

Exercise D — Answers

1. The award was presented to both Sarah and me at the closing ceremony. (me = object of to)
2. Whom did the committee appoint to lead the working group? (whom = object of appoint)
3. Please direct your complaints to the supervisor or me. (me = object of to; not myself)
4. It’s been decided that the inspection will take place next Thursday. (It’s = it has)
5. The final report was submitted by Oliver and me on the agreed date. (me = object of by; not myself)
6. We members of the faculty strongly oppose the proposed restructuring. (we = subject of oppose)
7. She is a far more experienced negotiator than he [is]. (formal) OR than him (informal, widely accepted)
8. The decision was ours to make, and we made it carefully. (ours = possessive pronoun; no apostrophe)
9. He and the rest of the team will attend the briefing at noon. (he = subject of will attend)
10. The panel questioned whoever had been closest to the incident. (whoever = subject of had been)

Exercise E — Answers

1. Who — subject of prepared. “He prepared” ✓ → who.
2. whom — object of hired. “The firm hired him” ✓ → whom.
3. whom — object of preposition to. “Addressed to him” ✓ → whom.
4. who — subject of the inner clause. Strip “did you say”: “who called” ✓.
5. whom — object of expected. “We expected him” ✓ → whom.
6. Who — subject of voted. “He voted” ✓ → who.
7. who — subject of drafted. Strip “I believe”: “who drafted” ✓ → who.
8. Whoever — subject of selects. “He selects” ✓ → whoever (nominative).

Exercise F — Answers

1. Error — its (possessive) not it’s (contraction). → its annual accounts
2. Correct — theirs is the correct independent possessive pronoun.
3. Correct — their and project’s are both correct.
4. Error — its (possessive) not it’s. → its associated metadata
5. Error — yours (no apostrophe). → Is this report yours
6. Correct — Separate possession correctly marked: Oliver’s and Clara’s.
7. Error — ours (no apostrophe). → the outcome was ours to determine
8. Correct — its appears twice, both times as possessive — both correct without apostrophe.

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