Learn the four types of gender in English grammar—masculine, feminine, common, and neuter—plus modern usage tips like singular 'they'.
Every noun in English has a gender — or, more precisely, every noun either has a natural gender based on its biological or social identity, or it belongs to the neuter category because it refers to a thing, an abstraction, or a concept rather than a living being.
Gender in English grammar affects the choice of personal pronouns (he, she, it, they), possessive adjectives (his, her, its, their), and reflexive pronouns (himself, herself, itself, themselves). It also affects how nouns are formed — many nouns in English have distinct masculine and feminine forms, built through specific patterns of suffixes, separate word pairs, or the addition of identifying words.
English is relatively straightforward compared to languages like French, Spanish, German, or Arabic — where every noun, regardless of whether it refers to a person or an object, is assigned a grammatical gender that affects the form of every article, adjective, and pronoun connected to it. In English, only nouns referring to people and some animals carry meaningful gender, and the grammar largely follows natural, biological, or social reality.
This chapter covers the full grammatical treatment of gender in English: the four categories of gender, how masculine and feminine nouns are formed, how gender affects pronoun and possessive adjective choice, special and ambiguous cases, collective and common gender nouns, the grammatical treatment of animals, the use of generic pronouns, and the increasingly important area of gender-neutral and inclusive language.
This chapter covers: Definition of grammatical gender · Four types of gender (masculine, feminine, neuter, common) · Masculine and feminine noun pairs · Forming feminine nouns (suffixes and patterns) · Gender and pronouns · Gender and possessive adjectives · Gender in animals · Collective nouns and gender · Common gender nouns · Generic he and singular they · Gender-neutral language · Personification and gender · Gender in titles and professions · Common errors and corrections · Master reference tables
Grammatical gender is a system of noun classification in which nouns are grouped into categories — typically masculine, feminine, and neuter — and in which this classification affects the form of related words such as pronouns, articles, and adjectives.
In many languages, grammatical gender is arbitrary — the French word for book (le livre) is masculine and the word for table (la table) is feminine, with no connection to any biological or social reality. In English, however, gender in grammar closely follows natural gender — the biological sex or social identity of the person or creature being referred to. A noun referring to a male person is masculine. A noun referring to a female person is feminine. A noun referring to a thing, concept, or abstraction is neuter. Nouns that can refer to either sex are called common gender.
This natural gender system means that in English, the grammar of gender is relatively transparent: once you know what or who the noun refers to, you can almost always determine its gender and choose the correct pronouns and possessives accordingly.
The term ‘grammatical gender’ describes the category a noun belongs to in terms of how it interacts with pronouns and other parts of speech. ‘Natural gender’ or ‘biological gender’ describes the actual sex or social identity of the referent. In English, these two almost always align — which is what makes English gender simpler than gender in French, German, or Spanish.
Gender affects English grammar in three primary ways:
The teacher finished his lesson early. (teacher = male — his)
The teacher finished her lesson early. (teacher = female — her)
The machine finished its cycle. (machine = neuter — its)
Additionally, gender affects noun formation — whether a separate word is used for male and female, or whether a suffix is added to indicate feminine or masculine gender. Understanding gender fully means understanding both the grammar it affects and the vocabulary it shapes.
A noun is masculine when it refers to a male person or animal. Masculine nouns take the pronouns he, him, his, and himself.
Masculine nouns referring to people:
father, son, brother, husband, uncle, nephew, grandfather, boy, man, gentleman
king, prince, duke, lord, emperor, sultan, khan
actor, waiter, host, steward, widower, bridegroom
Examples in sentences:
My father finished his work early and came home to help. (father = masculine → his)
The king addressed his subjects from the palace balcony. (king = masculine → his)
The boy hurt himself while playing in the garden. (boy = masculine → himself)
Her brother called her last night to check on her. (brother = masculine)
A noun is feminine when it refers to a female person or animal. Feminine nouns take the pronouns she, her, hers, and herself.
Feminine nouns referring to people:
mother, daughter, sister, wife, aunt, niece, grandmother, girl, woman, lady
queen, princess, duchess, empress, sultana
actress, waitress, hostess, stewardess, widow, bride
Examples in sentences:
My mother finished her work and sat down to rest. (mother = feminine → her)
The queen addressed her subjects with warmth and dignity. (queen = feminine → her)
The girl introduced herself to the new student. (girl = feminine → herself)
Her sister called her back immediately. (sister = feminine)
A noun is neuter when it refers to an inanimate object, an abstraction, a concept, or anything that has no biological sex. Neuter nouns take the pronouns it, its, and itself.
Neuter nouns — objects and things:
table, chair, book, computer, car, building, road, window, phone, machine
Neuter nouns — abstract concepts and ideas:
freedom, justice, time, knowledge, happiness, courage, democracy, peace
Neuter nouns — natural phenomena:
rain, wind, fire, water, earth, light, darkness, thunder
Examples in sentences:
The table needs to be cleaned — its surface is dusty. (table = neuter → its)
The machine stopped working. It needs to be repaired. (machine = neuter → it)
The computer updated itself overnight. (computer = neuter → itself)
Time passes quickly when you are absorbed in your work. It waits for no one.
In poetry and literature, neuter nouns — particularly abstract nouns and natural forces — are sometimes treated as masculine or feminine for artistic effect (personification). The sea might be she, the sun he, the moon she. This is a stylistic choice, not a grammar rule. It is discussed fully in Part Eight of this chapter.
A noun is of common gender when it can refer to either a male or a female. The same word is used regardless of the sex of the person — only the pronoun changes to reflect the actual gender of the individual being referred to.
Common gender nouns:
student, teacher, doctor, engineer, lawyer, scientist, writer, author
parent, child, baby, person, friend, neighbour, colleague, employee
cousin, relative, adult, youth, teenager, infant, toddler
leader, manager, director, president, minister, officer, soldier
Examples in sentences — same noun, pronoun reflects actual gender:
The student submitted her assignment early. (student = female)
The student submitted his assignment early. (student = male)
The doctor examined her patient carefully. (doctor = female)
The teacher spoke to his class. (teacher = male)
Common gender nouns are extremely numerous in English and represent the most flexible and natural way the language handles gender. They avoid the need for separate masculine/feminine word pairs and allow for inclusive reference.
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Common Gender |
| father | mother | table | parent |
| son | daughter | book | child |
| brother | sister | computer | sibling |
| husband | wife | tree | spouse |
| king | queen | river | ruler |
| uncle | aunt | mountain | relative |
| nephew | niece | door | cousin |
| boy | girl | house | teenager |
| man | woman | time | person |
| waiter | waitress | chair | server |
| actor | actress | film | performer |
| prince | princess | castle | royalty |
| hero | heroine | story | protagonist |
| widower | widow | ring | bereaved |
| bridegroom | bride | flower | spouse |
Many of the most common masculine/feminine pairs in English are completely different words — they share no etymological root and must simply be learned as pairs. These are sometimes called suppletive pairs.
| Masculine | Feminine | Category |
| man | woman | Human adults |
| boy | girl | Human children |
| father | mother | Parenthood |
| son | daughter | Children |
| brother | sister | Siblings |
| husband | wife | Marriage |
| uncle | aunt | Extended family |
| nephew | niece | Extended family |
| grandfather | grandmother | Grandparents |
| grandson | granddaughter | Grandchildren |
| king | queen | Royalty |
| prince | princess | Royalty |
| duke | duchess | Nobility |
| lord | lady | Title / nobility |
| sir | madam / dame | Formal address |
| widower | widow | Bereavement |
| bridegroom | bride | Marriage ceremony |
| monk | nun | Religion |
| bachelor | spinster / bachelorette | Unmarried adults |
| wizard | witch | Mythology / folklore |
| drake | duck | Birds |
| gander | goose | Birds |
| ram | ewe | Sheep |
| boar | sow | Pigs |
| buck / stag | doe / hind | Deer |
| bull | cow | Cattle |
| cock / rooster | hen | Poultry |
| dog | bitch | Dogs (formal) |
| lion | lioness | Large cats (see also suffix) |
| horse | mare | Horses (male: stallion) |
A number of English nouns form their feminine counterpart by adding a suffix to the masculine base. The most common suffixes used for this purpose are -ess, -ine, -rix, and -a (in borrowed words).
3.2.1 The Suffix -ess
The most productive and widely used suffix for forming feminine nouns in English. Added to a masculine noun to produce the feminine equivalent.
| Masculine | Feminine (-ess) | Notes |
| actor | actress | Both widely used; actress preferred in traditional usage |
| waiter | waitress | Waiter increasingly used for all genders in modern usage |
| host | hostess | Hostess still widely used |
| steward | stewardess | Largely replaced by flight attendant |
| god | goddess | Standard — goddess is not considered archaic |
| lion | lioness | Standard — both widely used |
| tiger | tigress | Standard — both widely used |
| prince | princess | Standard — both widely used |
| duke | duchess | Duchess uses different base form |
| emperor | empress | Standard |
| master | mistress | Note: mistress has developed additional meanings |
| giant | giantess | Used in mythology and folklore |
| mayor | mayoress | Traditional; mayor increasingly used for all genders |
| count | countess | Title of nobility |
| priest | priestess | Used in certain religious and mythological contexts |
| shepherd | shepherdess | Traditional; largely literary now |
| heir | heiress | Both widely used in legal and formal contexts |
| proprietor | proprietress | Traditional; proprietor increasingly used for all |
| baron | baroness | Title of nobility — both widely used |
| murderer | murderess | Legal contexts; murderer increasingly used for all |
| poet | poetess | Increasingly considered archaic; poet used for all |
| manager | manageress | Traditional British usage; largely replaced by manager |
The -ess suffix has declined in use across many professional and occupational terms. Words like manageress, authoress, poetess, and sculptress are now considered old-fashioned. The masculine form — manager, author, poet, sculptor — is increasingly used for all genders. -ess remains active and fully standard in actress, waitress, hostess, goddess, lioness, tigress, princess, duchess, and empress.
3.2.2 The Suffix -ine
Used in a smaller set of borrowed words, primarily from French and Latin origins.
| Masculine | Feminine (-ine) | Source |
| hero | heroine | From Greek/Latin — both widely used |
| czar / tsar | czarina / tsarina | From Russian |
| landgrave | landgravine | Historical German title |
3.2.3 The Suffix -a (Borrowed pairs)
Some pairs derive from Latin or Italian where the masculine ends in -us or -o and the feminine in -a.
| Masculine | Feminine (-a) | Notes |
| alumnus | alumna | Latin — plural: alumni / alumnae |
| fiancé | fiancée | From French — note the accent distinction |
| blond | blonde | From French — both spellings now widely accepted for all |
| masseur | masseuse | From French |
| chanteur | chanteuse | From French — male/female singer |
3.2.4 The Suffix -trix / -rix
A Latin-derived suffix, now largely formal or archaic in everyday use, but retained in certain legal and professional contexts.
| Masculine | Feminine (-trix / -rix) | Context |
| executor | executrix | Legal — female executor of a will |
| administrator | administratrix | Legal — largely replaced by administrator |
| aviator | aviatrix | Largely historical — used for early female aviators |
| gladiator | gladiatrix | Historical — used in Roman studies |
| dominat- | dominatrix | Retained in specific professional and cultural usage |
Some feminine nouns become masculine by the addition of a word or prefix — particularly with animals and certain special cases.
| Feminine (base) | Masculine (modified) | Method |
| duck | drake | Different word |
| goose | gander | Different word |
| hen | cock / rooster | Different word |
| mare | stallion (or: horse) | Different word |
| cow | bull / ox | Different word |
| peahen | peacock | Compound with -cock |
| widow | widower | Adding -er |
| bride | bridegroom | Adding -groom |
Over recent decades, many traditionally gendered occupational and role nouns have been replaced by gender-neutral alternatives. This reflects both social changes and a conscious effort toward inclusive language.
| Traditional Masculine | Traditional Feminine | Modern Gender-Neutral Term |
| steward | stewardess | flight attendant |
| policeman | policewoman | police officer |
| fireman | firewoman | firefighter |
| chairman | chairwoman | chairperson / chair |
| spokesman | spokeswoman | spokesperson |
| salesman | saleswoman | salesperson / sales representative |
| businessman | businesswoman | businessperson / executive |
| weatherman | weatherwoman | weather presenter / meteorologist |
| postman | postwoman | postal worker / letter carrier |
| cameraman | camerawoman | camera operator |
| ombudsman | ombudswoman | ombudsperson / ombuds |
| headmaster | headmistress | headteacher / principal |
| manpower | — | workforce / personnel / staffing |
| mankind | — | humankind / humanity / people |
| man-made | — | artificial / synthetic / manufactured |
| manhole | — | maintenance hole / access hole |
The most visible grammatical effect of gender in English is pronoun selection. Personal pronouns in English change form based on the gender of the noun they replace. This affects the subject (nominative), object (accusative/dative), possessive, and reflexive forms.
| Gender | Subject | Object | Possessive Adj. | Possessive Pro. | Reflexive |
| Masculine (male person / animal) | he | him | his | his | himself |
| Feminine (female person / animal) | she | her | her | hers | herself |
| Neuter (thing / abstraction) | it | it | its | its | itself |
| Common / Unknown / Plural | they | them | their | theirs | themselves |
He, him, his, and himself are used when the noun referred to is definitely male.
My father finished his work and relaxed for the evening.
The king signed the decree and handed it to his secretary.
The boy introduced himself to the class on his first day.
Her brother called her last night. He sounded worried.
The bull charged at the fence and hurt himself.
She, her, hers, and herself are used when the noun referred to is definitely female.
My mother finished her work early and sat down to read.
The queen addressed her subjects with warmth and dignity.
The girl introduced herself to the teacher on the first morning.
Her sister called her back immediately after seeing the message.
The cow returned to her calf across the field.
It, its, and itself are used for things, objects, concepts, places, and animals whose sex is unknown or irrelevant.
The table needs cleaning — its surface is covered in dust.
The machine broke down. It needs to be repaired immediately.
The company updated its website and relaunched its services.
The dog barked at the gate. It seemed anxious about something.
Time passed slowly. It always does when you are waiting.
Note on organisations and institutions: In British English, organisations are often treated as plural entities and take they/their: The government have announced their new policy. In American English, organisations take singular it/its: The government has announced its new policy. Both are grammatically acceptable within their respective varieties.
They, them, their, theirs, and themselves serve two distinct grammatical functions in modern English:
4.5.1 Plural they (referring to multiple people):
The students submitted their assignments on time. (multiple students)
The teachers met with the parents. They discussed the new curriculum.
My friends are coming tonight. They will bring their own food.
4.5.2 Singular they (referring to one person of unknown, unspecified, or non-binary gender):
Someone left their umbrella by the door. They should come back for it.
Every student must submit their own work.
The new employee will need to find their own accommodation.
Alex is joining us for dinner. They are bringing dessert.
The singular they is not a recent innovation. It has been used in English for more than six hundred years — appearing in Shakespeare, Jane Austen, and the King James Bible. It was and is a natural solution to the problem of referring to a person of unspecified gender without the clumsy he or she or the now-dated generic he.
The singular they is now endorsed by the Oxford English Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, the American Psychological Association (APA), the Chicago Manual of Style, and virtually every major modern style guide. It is grammatically correct and increasingly expected in both formal and informal contexts.
| Situation | Pronoun | Example |
| Noun is definitely male | he / him / his | My father finished his report. |
| Noun is definitely female | she / her / her | My mother finished her report. |
| Noun refers to a thing or abstraction | it / its | The machine stopped. It overheated. |
| Noun refers to multiple people | they / them / their | The students submitted their work. |
| Noun could be male or female (unknown) | they / them / their (singular they) | The student submitted their work. |
| Person uses they/them pronouns | they / them / their | Alex submitted their report. They did well. |
| Noun is an organisation (UK English) | they / their (collective) | The company announced their results. |
| Noun is an organisation (US English) | it / its | The company announced its results. |
| Animal (pet — known sex) | he or she | My dog is very playful. She loves running. |
| Animal (unknown sex / generic) | it | A dolphin is known for its intelligence. |
Many animal species — particularly domestic and farm animals, and those of significant cultural importance — have distinct names for the male and female of the species, as well as separate names for the young.
| Animal | Male | Female | Young | Group |
| Cattle | bull / ox (castrated) | cow | calf | herd |
| Horse | stallion / gelding (castrated) | mare | foal (colt/filly) | herd |
| Dog | dog | bitch | puppy | pack / litter |
| Cat | tom / tomcat | queen | kitten | clowder / litter |
| Pig | boar | sow | piglet | herd / litter |
| Sheep | ram | ewe | lamb | flock |
| Goat | billy-goat / buck | nanny-goat / doe | kid | herd |
| Deer | stag / buck | doe / hind | fawn | herd |
| Lion | lion | lioness | cub | pride |
| Tiger | tiger | tigress | cub | streak / ambush |
| Bear | boar | sow | cub | sleuth |
| Fox | dog-fox / reynard | vixen | cub / kit | skulk / earth |
| Duck | drake | duck | duckling | flock |
| Goose | gander | goose | gosling | gaggle (on ground) / skein (in flight) |
| Chicken | rooster / cock | hen | chick | flock |
| Turkey | tom | hen | poult | rafter |
| Rabbit | buck | doe | kitten / kit | colony / herd |
| Swan | cob | pen | cygnet | bevy |
| Elephant | bull | cow | calf | herd |
| Whale | bull | cow | calf | pod |
| Monkey | male | female | infant | troop |
| Bee | drone (male) | queen / worker | larva | colony / swarm |
The choice of pronoun for an animal depends on several factors: whether the animal’s sex is known, the relationship between the speaker and the animal, and the context of the communication.
It — when the sex is unknown or irrelevant:
A dolphin is known for its intelligence and its ability to communicate.
The spider spun its web in the corner of the window.
The bird sang from its perch on the branch.
He or she — when the sex is known:
Our dog is called Bella. She loves running in the park.
The lion protected his territory fiercely.
The mare raised her head as we approached the stable.
He or she — by cultural convention for certain animals:
The cat sat on the mat and licked her paws. (cats often referred to as she by convention)
The ship ploughed through the waves, her hull cutting through the water. (personification)
In everyday conversation, people often use he or she for pets regardless of whether the sex is known — reflecting the close emotional relationship between humans and their animals. In scientific and technical writing, it is preferred unless the sex is specifically relevant to the discussion.
Most professional and occupational titles in modern English are common gender — the same word is used regardless of the sex of the person holding the role. The pronoun selected reflects the actual gender of the individual.
| Common Gender Title | Male Example | Female Example |
| doctor | The doctor finished his rounds early. | The doctor finished her rounds early. |
| teacher | The teacher explained his method. | The teacher explained her method. |
| student | The student submitted his paper. | The student submitted her paper. |
| lawyer | The lawyer presented his case. | The lawyer presented her case. |
| engineer | The engineer checked his calculations. | The engineer checked her calculations. |
| scientist | The scientist published his findings. | The scientist published her findings. |
| writer | The writer finished his novel. | The writer finished her novel. |
| director | The director announced his decision. | The director announced her decision. |
| nurse | The nurse checked his patient. | The nurse checked her patient. |
| manager | The manager reviewed his team. | The manager reviewed her team. |
Some kinship terms are inherently gendered; others are common gender. The following table distinguishes between the two categories.
| Inherently Masculine | Inherently Feminine | Common Gender (either) |
| father | mother | parent |
| son | daughter | child / offspring |
| brother | sister | sibling |
| husband | wife | spouse / partner |
| uncle | aunt | relative / family member |
| nephew | niece | cousin (common gender) |
| grandfather | grandmother | grandparent |
| grandson | granddaughter | grandchild |
| godfather | godmother | godparent |
| stepfather | stepmother | stepparent |
| brother-in-law | sister-in-law | in-law / sibling-in-law |
| stepson | stepdaughter | stepchild |
Cousin is a common gender noun — it refers to both male and female cousins equally. Unlike French (cousin / cousine), German (Cousin / Cousine), or Bangla (ভাই-বোন distinctions), English uses one word for both. The gender is conveyed only by the pronoun: My cousin called me. She is visiting next week.
Many general nouns referring to human beings are common gender in English. These are among the most frequently used nouns in the language.
| Common Gender Noun | Notes |
| person | The most general term for a human being — always common gender |
| adult | Refers to any person above the age of majority |
| child | Refers to any young person — gender specified by pronoun |
| baby / infant | Common gender — gender often unknown in early infancy |
| toddler | Common gender |
| teenager / youth | Common gender |
| friend | Common gender — one of the most frequently used common gender nouns |
| neighbour | Common gender |
| colleague | Common gender — used for all professional peers |
| employee | Common gender |
| employer | Common gender |
| customer / client | Common gender |
| patient | Common gender — used in medical contexts |
| passenger | Common gender |
| visitor | Common gender |
| stranger | Common gender |
| citizen | Common gender |
| victim | Common gender |
| survivor | Common gender |
| volunteer | Common gender |
Formal titles of address in English have traditionally been gendered — different forms exist for men and women. These remain in active use in formal and official contexts, though attitudes and practices are changing.
| Title | Gender | Context / Usage |
| Mr. | Masculine | Used before a man’s surname regardless of marital status |
| Mrs. | Feminine | Used before a married woman’s surname |
| Miss | Feminine | Used before an unmarried woman’s surname (no full stop in British English) |
| Ms. | Feminine (any) | Used before a woman’s surname regardless of marital status — now preferred in professional contexts |
| Mx. | Gender-neutral | Used before a person’s surname when gender is not specified or not binary |
| Sir | Masculine | Used before a knight’s or baronet’s first name; also used as a general respectful address to a man |
| Dame | Feminine | Used before a female knight’s or DBE’s first name |
| Lord | Masculine | Peerage title — used before a nobleman’s name |
| Lady | Feminine | Peerage title — used before a noblewoman’s name or a lord’s wife’s name |
| King | Masculine | Reigning male monarch |
| Queen | Feminine | Reigning female monarch or king’s wife |
| Emperor | Masculine | Male ruler of an empire |
| Empress | Feminine | Female ruler of an empire or emperor’s wife |
| Prince | Masculine | Male member of a royal family |
| Princess | Feminine | Female member of a royal family or prince’s wife |
| Duke | Masculine | Highest rank of British nobility |
| Duchess | Feminine | Wife of a duke or female holder of a dukedom |
| Count | Masculine | European noble title |
| Countess | Feminine | Wife of a count or female holder of the title |
Most professional and academic titles are now common gender — the same title is used regardless of the holder’s gender. This represents a significant shift from earlier practice.
| Title | Old Practice | Modern Practice |
| Professor | Professor (male) / Professoress (rare) | Professor — used for all |
| Doctor | Doctor (male) / Doctress (archaic) | Doctor — used for all |
| Director | Director (male) / Directrix (archaic) | Director — used for all |
| Author | Author (male) / Authoress (declining) | Author — used for all; authoress now considered old-fashioned |
| Poet | Poet (male) / Poetess (declining) | Poet — used for all; poetess now considered archaic |
| Actor | Actor (male) / Actress (female) | Actor increasingly used for all; actress retained in many contexts |
| Waiter | Waiter (male) / Waitress (female) | Server increasingly used; waiter/waitress still common |
| Chair | Chairman (male) / Chairwoman | Chairperson / Chair — used for all |
| Spokesperson | Spokesman / Spokeswoman | Spokesperson — used for all |
When addressing someone in formal speech or correspondence, the correct title and honorific must reflect the individual’s gender — or, increasingly, the individual’s stated preference.
Formal openings in letters and emails:
Dear Mr. Rahman, / Dear Mrs. Hassan, / Dear Ms. Karim,
Dear Sir, / Dear Madam, / Dear Sir or Madam, (when gender unknown)
To Whom It May Concern, (formal — gender unknown, fully neutral)
Verbal address:
Yes, sir. / Yes, ma’am. (spoken formal address)
Excuse me, could you help me? (neutral — no title used)
Personification is a figure of speech in which an inanimate object, an abstract concept, or a natural force is given human attributes — including human gender. When a writer personifies a neuter noun, they deliberately assign it masculine or feminine pronouns to create a sense of personality, intimacy, beauty, or power.
Personification is a rhetorical and literary device, not a grammatical rule. It is a deliberate choice made by a writer for specific effect. In technical, academic, and most formal prose, neuter nouns keep their neuter pronouns (it, its). In poetry, literature, and expressive writing, personification gives those same nouns he, she, or even they.
8.2.1 Ships and Vessels — traditionally feminine:
By long-standing maritime convention, ships are referred to as she/her. This tradition extends to boats, aircraft, and in some contexts locomotives.
The Titanic struck the iceberg on her maiden voyage.
The aircraft completed her transatlantic crossing in record time.
She ploughed through the waves, her hull gleaming in the morning light.
Note: The practice of referring to ships as she is declining in many modern contexts. Lloyd’s List, the world’s oldest shipping publication, switched from she to it for ships in 2002. Many writers and editors now use it for ships. Both are acceptable, though she retains cultural and poetic resonance.
8.2.2 Countries — sometimes feminine:
Countries are sometimes personified as feminine — particularly in poetic, patriotic, or nationalist writing — though it is perfectly standard and increasingly common.
England expects that every man will do his duty. (personification — England as a person)
Bangladesh has achieved extraordinary development since her independence.
France opened her borders after the agreement.
In most modern writing: Bangladesh has achieved extraordinary development since its independence.
8.2.3 Nature and Natural Forces:
Nature is traditionally personified as feminine — Mother Nature is the most familiar expression of this. The moon is often feminine; the sun is sometimes masculine.
Nature has her own way of restoring balance.
The moon rose in all her silver beauty.
The sun stretched his golden arms across the horizon.
The sea was showing her most dangerous face.
8.2.4 Abstract Concepts:
In classical literature and poetry, abstract concepts are frequently personified as female or male. Justice, Liberty, and Truth are conventionally feminine in Western tradition; Death is sometimes masculine, sometimes neuter.
Justice raised her sword and her scales against corruption.
Liberty shook off her chains and stepped into the light.
Time moves forward. He waits for no one.
Death came for him in his sleep, swift and silent.
Modern English usage — particularly in journalism, academic writing, and business communication — almost universally uses it for all inanimate objects, countries, ships, and concepts. Personification using she or he is now a conscious stylistic choice, found primarily in literary, poetic, and expressive writing.
| Noun | Traditional Personification | Modern Neutral Usage |
| ship | she / her (maritime convention) | it / its (modern standard) |
| country | she / her (patriotic / literary) | it / its (modern standard) |
| nature | she / her (Mother Nature) | it / its OR she / her (both acceptable) |
| moon | she / her (poetic) | it / its (modern standard) |
| sun | he / his (poetic, less common) | it / its (modern standard) |
| justice / liberty | she / her (allegorical tradition) | it / its (modern standard) |
| death | he or it (literary) | it / its (modern standard) |
Language shapes perception. When a profession is consistently described using masculine pronouns — the doctor… he, the engineer… his — it subtly reinforces the association of that role with men and makes women in those roles feel linguistically invisible. Gender-neutral language is an attempt to use English in a way that is accurate, inclusive, and fair.
Gender-neutral language does not mean abandoning grammatical precision. It means choosing the most accurate language available. When referring to a person of unknown gender, there is no reason to default to he — English offers several precise and grammatically correct alternatives.
9.2.1 Use the singular they
The most natural and increasingly standard approach. Use they, them, their for a person of unknown, unspecified, or non-binary gender.
✘ Every student must submit his essay by Friday. (assumes all students are male)
✔ Every student must submit their essay by Friday. (singular they — fully standard)
✘ If a customer has a complaint, he should speak to the manager.
✔ If a customer has a complaint, they should speak to the manager.
9.2.2 Use he or she (or she or he)
More formal and somewhat awkward over long passages, but unambiguous in specifying both genders.
Every student must submit his or her essay by Friday.
If a customer has a complaint, he or she should speak to the manager.
He or she is grammatically correct but becomes cumbersome in extended passages. It is better suited to one-off formal statements than to running text. The singular they is now considered the preferred alternative by most style guides.
9.2.3 Rewrite in the plural
Restructuring the sentence to make the subject plural allows the natural use of they without any awkwardness.
✘ The employee must submit his timesheet by Thursday.
✔ Employees must submit their timesheets by Thursday.
✘ A student should always review his work before submission.
✔ Students should always review their work before submission.
9.2.4 Remove the pronoun entirely
Sometimes the sentence can be restructured to avoid the pronoun altogether without losing meaning.
✘ The manager should ensure that his team is briefed.
✔ The manager should ensure the team is briefed.
✘ Every writer must proofread his work carefully.
✔ Every writer must proofread the work carefully.
9.2.5 Use gender-neutral nouns
Replace gendered occupational or role nouns with gender-neutral alternatives.
| Gendered Noun | Gender-Neutral Alternative |
| policeman / policewoman | police officer |
| fireman / firewoman | firefighter |
| steward / stewardess | flight attendant |
| chairman / chairwoman | chairperson / chair |
| spokesman / spokeswoman | spokesperson |
| headmaster / headmistress | headteacher / principal |
| postman / postwoman | postal worker |
| mankind | humankind / humanity / people |
| manpower | workforce / human resources / staff |
| man-made | artificial / synthetic / manufactured |
| layman | layperson / non-specialist |
| sportsmanship | fair play / sporting behaviour |
| salesman | sales representative / sales agent |
| cameraman | camera operator |
| congressman | representative / member of Congress |
Some people identify with a gender that is neither exclusively male nor exclusively female. These individuals may use they / them / their pronouns, or other pronouns such as ze / zir or xe / xem — though they/them is by far the most widely used and grammatically integrated in standard English.
When referring to a specific named person who uses they/them pronouns, the grammar is identical to the generic singular they:
Alex submitted their report this morning. They did an excellent job on the analysis.
The director, Jordan, will present their findings at the meeting.
Has Sam finished their section of the project?
Using someone’s correct pronouns is a matter of accuracy and respect. Just as you would use the correct name for a person — not a name they do not use — using their stated pronouns reflects basic courtesy. Most major style guides, including APA 7th edition and Chicago 17th edition, now include guidance on using they/them for non-binary individuals.
Some traditional English constructions introduce gender where none is needed or intended. Modern usage increasingly removes this unnecessary gendering.
Avoiding the generic masculine:
Traditional: Every man for himself. / Man has always sought to understand the universe.
✔ Modern: Every person for themselves. / Humanity has always sought to understand the universe.
Avoiding compound nouns with man:
Traditional: The manpower of the department is stretched. / A man-made disaster.
✔ Modern: The workforce of the department is stretched. / A human-caused disaster.
Avoiding unnecessary female-specific marking:
When referring to a professional role, there is no need to add female-specific markers unless the distinction is relevant to the context.
Unnecessary: The female doctor examined the patient. (Why mention female? Is it relevant?)
✔ Natural: The doctor examined the patient.
Unnecessary: A woman writer from Dhaka won the prize.
✔ Natural: A writer from Dhaka won the prize.
Using the wrong gendered pronoun for a person whose gender is known is both a grammatical error and a potential source of offence.
✘ The female manager presented her report. He explained the key findings clearly.
✔ The female manager presented her report. She explained the key findings clearly.
✘ My sister called last night. He seemed worried.
✔ My sister called last night. She seemed worried.
It is used for things, not people. Using it to refer to a person — even an unidentified one — is felt as dehumanising in most contexts.
✘ The student submitted its essay early.
✔ The student submitted their essay early. (singular they)
✘ A baby needs it to be fed every few hours.
✔ A baby needs to be fed every few hours. (remove pronoun) OR: A baby needs them to be… (informal)
Exception: It is acceptable to use it for a baby or young child whose gender is unknown, particularly in more formal or medical contexts: The baby opened its eyes. / An infant needs its sleep. This is grammatically standard, though many parents and caregivers prefer he or she once they know the child’s gender, and some prefer they regardless.
The use of he as a generic pronoun for a person of unspecified gender was standard in English for centuries but is now considered outdated, inaccurate, and exclusionary by most style guides and institutions.
Outdated: Every student must hand in his assignment by Friday.
✔ Modern: Every student must hand in their assignment by Friday. (singular they)
Outdated: A good teacher always prepares his lessons thoroughly.
✔ Modern: A good teacher always prepares their lessons thoroughly.
✔ Also correct: Good teachers always prepare their lessons thoroughly. (plural restructure)
Selecting the wrong possessive adjective based on a misidentification of the noun’s gender.
✘ The lioness fed his cubs in the shade of the tree.
✔ The lioness fed her cubs in the shade of the tree. (lioness = feminine → her)
✘ My mother finished his work before dinner.
✔ My mother finished her work before dinner.
✘ The company announced her quarterly results.
✔ The company announced its quarterly results. (company = neuter → its)
Its is the possessive pronoun for neuter gender — no apostrophe. It’s is the contraction of it is or it has — always with an apostrophe.
✘ The machine stopped. It’s motor overheated.
✔ The machine stopped. Its motor overheated. (possessive — no apostrophe)
✘ Its a common mistake in formal writing.
✔ It’s a common mistake in formal writing. (it is — apostrophe)
Test: Expand it’s to it is or it has. If the expansion works, use it’s with an apostrophe. If not, use its without.
Some traditionally feminine -ess forms are still widely used and fully standard. Others are now considered old-fashioned, and using them may be seen as belittling or anachronistic.
Outdated: She is an authoress who writes historical fiction.
✔ Modern: She is an author who writes historical fiction.
Outdated: The poetess Sylvia Plath is studied in universities worldwide.
✔ Modern: The poet Sylvia Plath is studied in universities worldwide.
✔ Still standard: She is an actress / waitress / hostess / goddess / lioness / princess.
| Error | Wrong Example | Correct Example | Rule |
| Wrong pronoun for person | My sister arrived. He was tired. | My sister arrived. She was tired. | Pronoun must match known gender |
| it for a person | The student submitted its work. | The student submitted their work. | it is for things, not people |
| Generic he | Every doctor and his patient… | Every doctor and their patient… | Use singular they for unspecified gender |
| Wrong possessive | The company finished his report. | The company finished its report. | Organisations → it / its |
| its vs it’s | The cat licked it’s paw. | The cat licked its paw. | its = possessive, no apostrophe |
| Outdated -ess forms | She is a famous poetess. | She is a famous poet. | Most occupational -ess forms now archaic |
| Unnecessary gendering | The female engineer solved it. | The engineer solved it. | Don’t mark gender unless relevant |
| Incorrect reflexive | The king hurt herself. | The king hurt himself. | Reflexive must match subject’s gender |
Gender in English grammar is, at its core, a system for tracking reference. He tells us the noun is male; she tells us it is female; it tells us it is a thing or abstraction; they tells us there are multiple, or that the gender is unknown or unspecified. Once you understand these distinctions, you understand the foundation of gender in English.
The vocabulary side of gender — the masculine/feminine noun pairs, the -ess suffix, the suppletive pairs like king/queen and uncle/aunt — reflects centuries of social and linguistic history. Some of these distinctions remain vivid and fully active: no one is replacing lioness with lion or princess with prince. Others — manageress, poetess, authoress — have faded because the roles themselves are no longer exclusively male, and the feminine suffix came to feel like a qualification rather than simply an identification.
The grammar side of gender — pronoun choice, possessive agreement, reflexive selection — is governed by clear rules that apply consistently. The main area of change is the growing acceptance and standardisation of the singular they, which has been used in English for six centuries and is now endorsed by every major style guide. Understanding when and why to use it is not a concession to trend — it is accurate grammar for a language that has always adapted to reflect social reality.
Gender-neutral language is not about removing precision from English. It is about achieving greater precision: referring to people as they actually are, using the pronouns and titles that reflect their identity, and choosing words that do not assume a gender where none is specified or known. That is not politics. That is grammar doing its job correctly.
This chapter covers: Definition of grammatical gender · Four types (masculine, feminine, neuter, common) · Full masculine/feminine pairs table · Feminine nouns with -ess, -ine, -trix suffixes · Gender-neutral replacements table · Gender and pronouns (he/she/it/they) · Full pronoun table · Singular they — history and modern usage · Pronoun decision guide · Animals — male/female/young/group names · Common gender occupational nouns · Titles and honorifics · Personification and literary gender · Gender-neutral language strategies · Non-binary pronouns · Common errors — 8 types with wrong/correct examples · Master reference table
| Category | Type | Pronoun Used | Examples |
| Masculine | Refers to male person or animal | he / him / his / himself | father, son, king, actor, bull, stallion |
| Feminine | Refers to female person or animal | she / her / hers / herself | mother, daughter, queen, actress, cow, mare |
| Neuter | Refers to thing, object, or abstraction | it / its / itself | table, water, freedom, company, machine |
| Common | Refers to person of either gender | he, she, or they (depending on known gender) | student, teacher, doctor, friend, child |
| Plural | Refers to multiple people or things | they / them / their / themselves | students, teachers, dogs, books |
| Singular they | One person of unknown / unspecified / non-binary gender | they / them / their / themselves | Someone left their bag. / Alex submitted their work. |
| Masculine suffix | Masculine base form (most common) | — | actor, waiter, host, god, lion, prince |
| -ess suffix | Feminine form of base noun | — | actress, waitress, hostess, goddess, lioness, princess |
| -ine suffix | Feminine (select words) | — | heroine (from hero) |
| Suppletive pairs | Completely different words | — | man/woman, boy/girl, king/queen, uncle/aunt |
| Common gender (neut.) | Gender-neutral replacements | — | flight attendant, police officer, chairperson, author |
| Personification | Neuter noun treated as gendered (literary) | she or he (poetic choice) | the ship / she, the moon / she, nature / she |
| Animals (known sex) | Use male/female pronoun | he or she | The dog barked. She was anxious. |
| Animals (unknown sex) | Use neuter pronoun | it / its | A dolphin is known for its intelligence. |
